M O R O C C O

(MOROCCO IS NOT AN INTEGRALLY MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRY. ONLY THE NORTHERN COAST IS CONSIDERED TO BE MEDITERRANEAN.)

Morocco (in Arabic, Al Mamlakah al Maghribiyah), hereditary monarchy, bordered on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the east and south-east by Algeria, on the south by Western Sahara, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. The south-eastern boundary, in the Sahara Desert, is not precisely defined. Within Morocco are the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla, on the Mediterranean coast. Several small islands off the northern coast of Morocco are also possessions of Spain. From 1912 to 1956 Morocco itself was divided into French and Spanish protectorates. The area of Morocco is 446,550 sq km (172,414 sq mi). Since 1979, Morocco has also occupied the adjacent country known as Western Sahara (formerly Spanish Sahara). Rabat is the capital of Morocco.

Land and Resources Morocco has the broadest plains and the highest mountains in North Africa. The country has four main physiographic regions: an area of highlands, called Er Rif, paralleling the Mediterranean coast; the Atlas Mountains, extending across the country in a south-western to north-eastern direction between the Atlantic Ocean and Er Rif, from which the mountains are separated by the Taza Depression; a region of broad coastal plains along the Atlantic Ocean, framed in the arc formed by Er Rif and the Atlas Mountains; and the plains and valleys south of the Atlas Mountains, which merge with the Sahara along the south-eastern borders of the country. Most Moroccans inhabit the Atlantic coastal plain. The highest mountain is Jebel Toubkal (4,165 m/13,665 ft), in the Grand Atlas range. Elevations in Er Rif attain heights of about 2,440 m (8,000 ft).

Rivers and Lakes Morocco has many rivers, which, although unimportant for navigation, are used for irrigation and for generating electric power. The chief rivers are the Moulouya, which drains into the Mediterranean Sea, and the Sebou, which flows into the Atlantic Ocean.

Climate Along the Mediterranean coast, Morocco has a subtropical climate, tempered by oceanic influences that give the coastal cities moderate temperatures. At Essaouira (Mogador), for example, temperatures average 16.4° C (61.5° F) in January and 22.5° C (72.5° F) in August. Towards the interior, winters are colder and summers warmer. Thus, in Fes the mean temperature is 10° C (50° F) in January and 26.9° C (80.5° F) in August. At high altitudes temperatures of below -17.8° C (0° F) are not uncommon, and mountain peaks are covered with snow for most of the year. Rain falls mainly during the winter months. Precipitation is heaviest in the north-west and lightest in the east and south. The average annual precipitation is about 955 mm (371 in) in Tangier, 430 mm (17 in) in Casablanca, 280 mm (11 in) in Essaouira, and less than 102 mm (4 in) in the Sahara.

Natural Resources Morocco's resources are primarily agricultural, but mineral resources are also significant. Among the latter the most important is phosphate rock, of which Morocco has 75 per cent of world reserves; other minerals include coal, cobalt, iron, lead, manganese, petroleum, silver, tin, and zinc.
The soils along the coast of Morocco are allomorphic and humus-carbonate; inland areas have podzolic and steppe soils. The southern part of the country is mainly desert.

Plants and Animals The mountainous regions of Morocco contain extensive areas of forest, including large stands of cork oak, evergreen oak, juniper, cedar, fir, and pine. Except for areas under cultivation, the plains are usually covered with scrub brush and alfalfa grass. On the plain of Sous, near the southern border, is a large forest of argan, a kind of thorny tree found principally in Morocco.
Moroccan wildlife represents a mingling of European and African species. Of the animals characteristic of Europe, the fox, rabbit, otter, and squirrel abound; of predominantly African types, the gazelle, wild boar, panther, baboon, wild goat, and horned viper are common.

Population The original population of Morocco was Berber, and about three quarters of all present-day Moroccans are of Berber descent. Arabs, who constitute the bulk of the inhabitants of the larger cities, form the second-largest ethnic group. Considerable intermarriage among Arabs, Berbers, and the country's small number of black Africans has broken down differences among ethnic groups. Morocco has about 100,000 European inhabitants, most of them French. The approximately 12,000 Jews stem mainly from families that have inhabited the area for centuries. The population is more or less evenly balanced between urban and rural dwellers.

Population Characteristics Morocco has a population (1996 official census) of 26,736,000, including the disputed territory of Western Sahara (population, 1994 census, 252,146). The country's overall population density in 1996 was about 58 people per sq km (151 per sq mi).

Political Divisions Morocco proper is divided into 35 provinces and 7 urban prefectures; another 4 provinces comprise the disputed territory of Western Sahara.

Principal Cities The capital of Morocco is Rabat, with a population (1994 census, greater city) of 1,386,000. Other major urban centres, with their 1994 census populations, are Casablanca (2,941,000), the country's largest city and main seaport; Marrakech (602,000) and Fes (564,000), both important trade centres; and Tangier (307,000), a seaport on a bay of the Strait of Gibraltar.

Religion Islam is the established state religion of Morocco. Almost the entire population is Sunni Muslim. The monarch is the supreme Muslim authority in the country. About 1 per cent of the population is Christian, and less than 0.1 per cent is Jewish.

Language The Berber languages, once dominant throughout Morocco, have declined in importance, and in the early 1990s about 25 per cent of the people used Berber as their first language. Many of these people also speak Arabic, the country's official language, which is the primary language of some 75 per cent of the population. Many Moroccans also speak French and Spanish.

Education In 1963 schooling became compulsory in Morocco for children between the ages of 7 and 13, but significantly fewer girls than boys attend classes, and less than 40 per cent of secondary-school-age Moroccans actually attend secondary school. Arabic is the main language of instruction, and French is also used in secondary schools. In the mid-1990s it was estimated that less than 50 per cent of the population was literate. In 1994-1995, about 3.9 million pupils attended some 6,200 primary schools, and almost 391,000 students were enrolled in 450 secondary schools.
Some 266,000 students were enrolled in higher education in 1994-1995. Higher education of the traditional type is centered in Fes at al-Qarawiyin University, founded in AD 859. Modern higher education is offered at Mohammed V University (1957), at Rabat; Mohammed Ben Abdellah University (1974), at Fes; Cadi Ayyad University (1978), at Marrakech; Hassan II University (1976), at Casablanca; and Mohammed I University (1978), at Oujda. Rabat also has colleges of fine arts, public administration, agriculture, and economics, and the School of Native Arts and Crafts (1921) is in Tetouan. In 1995, 5.8 per cent of the country's gross national product (GNP) was spent on education.

Culture Morocco has felt the influences of several ancient cultures. Excavations have unearthed elements of the Phoenician, Hellenic, Carthaginian, and Roman civilizations. Christianity spread to this region in Roman times and survived the Arab invasion, but Arabic influences, which began in the 7th century, were to prove the strongest. The Arabs brought to Morocco a written language that is still the primary language of business and culture. The western African influence, seen in dances, spread northwards with trade. Among more recent influences, the strongest is that of France.
The Moroccan national library, which was founded in 1920, is located at Rabat. Other libraries in the country include the Library of Casablanca and the University library at Fes. Morocco has a number of major museums, one of which, the Archaeological Museum in Tetouan, has collections of Carthaginian, Roman, and Islamic art and artifacts.

Economy Morocco is primarily an agricultural country, although no more than about 20 per cent of the land is cultivated. In 1995 the GNP (World Bank figure; 1993-1995 prices) was estimated at US$29,500 million, or about US$1,110 per person. The estimated budget during the same period included revenues of about US$8,100 million and expenditures of about US$8,900 million. Morocco has low inflation and a growing tourist industry. There is, however, a high rate of population growth and unemployment, and agriculture is regularly affected by drought. A privatization programme begun by the government in 1992 has met with opposition from trade unions. Inward investment by foreign companies has been encouraged.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing The principal crops of Morocco, with their production in tonnes in 1995, are sugar beet (2,717,400) and sugar cane (1,031,320); cereals, especially wheat (1.09 million) and barley (607,690); potatoes (774,000); oranges (672,000); olives (436,000); and dates (97,600). Many other fruit and vegetables are also grown. Livestock included about 16 million sheep, 4 million goats, and 2.4 million head of cattle in 1995.
Cork is a major forest product of Morocco. Much timber is cut for use as fuel; total roundwood yields in 1993 were 1.5 million cu m (52.9 million cu ft). The chief fishing centers are Agadir, Safi, Essaouira, and Casablanca. The catch in 1994 was some 608,900 tonnes, including pilchard, tuna, mackerel, anchovies, and shellfish.

Mining Morocco is a leading producer of phosphate rock; output was about 18.3 million tonnes in 1993. Other minerals produced were coal (603,800 tonnes), iron ore (66,300), manganese ore (42,600), lead (114,700), and zinc (125,700).

Manufacturing Morocco's manufacturing sector is made up mostly of small-scale enterprises. Construction materials, chemicals, textiles, footwear, processed food, wine, refined petroleum, and many other kinds of goods are produced in Morocco. Artisans produce fabrics, leather goods, ceramics, carpets and rugs, and woodwork of high quality. Production in 1993 included about 900,000 sq m (1.1 million sq yd) of carpets and rugs and 997,000 tonnes of phosphate fertilizers.

Energy More than 90 per cent of Morocco's annual production of electricity is generated in thermal plants, and the remainder is produced in hydroelectric facilities. Morocco has an installed electricity-generating capacity of about 2.6 million kW. Output of electricity in 1993 was about 10.7 billion kWh.

Currency and Banking The monetary unit of Morocco is the Moroccan dirham of 100 francs (9.8115 dirhams equal US$1; 1998). It is issued by the Banque al-Maghrib (1959), the state bank. The country also has several large private banks.

Commerce and Trade Morocco's leading exports are phosphates and phosphoric acid. Other exports include citrus fruit, wheat, fish, and minerals. Exports in 1994 earned around US$4,000 million. Imports, consisting mainly of industrial equipment, food products, manufactured goods, and fuels, were valued at US$6,600 million. The principal trade partners of Morocco are France, Germany, Spain, Italy, the United States, and the United Arab Emirates. Morocco gains much foreign exchange from remittances by Moroccans working abroad and from the expenditures of the 3.5 million tourists who visit the country each year.

Labour Morocco's workforce in 1994 included some 8.5 million people. Approximately 34 per cent of the labour force was engaged in agriculture, about 8 per cent worked in services, and some 24 per cent was employed in industry. Only a small percentage of the total workforce is organized; the leading trade unions are the Union Marocaine du Travail and the Union Générale des Travailleurs du Maroc.

Transport Morocco has extensive port facilities, concentrated principally at Casablanca. Other ports include Agadir, Kenitra, Mohammedia, Safi, and Tangier. In 1993 the country had some 1,890 km (1,173 mi) of railway track and about 59,198 km (36,786 mi) of roads, some 47 per cent of which were hard-surfaced. Morocco had about 956,600 passenger cars in 1996, with a ratio of 20 people per car. Domestic and international air service is provided by Royal Air Maroc; several major foreign airlines also serve Morocco.

Communications More than 1 million telephones were in use in Morocco in 1995. Radio and television programmes are broadcast in several languages, and about 5.1 million radios and 1.2 million television receivers were in use in 1995. The country has 12 daily newspapers and numerous periodicals.

Government Morocco is a hereditary monarchy, governed under a constitution of 1992, approved in a national referendum.

Executive and Legislature The monarch, who, according to the constitution, must be male, is the head of state of Morocco. He appoints the prime minister and Cabinet. He also has the power to call for a reconsideration of legislative measures and to dissolve the legislature. The monarch is commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces.
Under the constitution of 1972, Morocco has a unicameral legislature called the Chamber of Representatives. Its 306 members serve six-year terms. Deputies for 206 seats are chosen by direct universal suffrage; deputies for the remaining 100 seats are named by local political and economic groups. Constitutional reform proposals approved by referendum in 1996 called for the establishment of a new legislature, with a lower house directly elected to five-year terms and an upper house indirectly elected from professional groups and local government.

Political Parties Morocco has a multi-party political system. The major organizations are the Istiqlal, a moderate grouping founded in 1944; the Popular Movement, a conservative organization established in 1959; the Socialist Union of Popular Force; the pro-monarchy National Rally of Independents, founded in 1978; and the Constitutional Union, organized in 1983.

Judiciary The highest tribunal in Morocco is the supreme court, which sits in Rabat. The country also has 15 courts of appeal. Cases involving small sums of money are heard by local tribunals, and more important cases are initiated in regional tribunals. In addition, the country has 14 labour tribunals.
Local Government
Morocco's provinces are administered by governors who are appointed by the king and serve at the pleasure of the central government. Each province is divided into cercles, which are subdivided into circonscriptions (constituencies).
Health and Welfare
Health services are fairly well developed in Morocco's cities, but health conditions in rural areas remain poor. The government provides for social security benefits. The country had some 2,945 people per doctor in 1994. Average life expectancy at birth in 1996 was 67.5 years for men and 71.6 years for women. The infant mortality rate in 1995 was 45 deaths per 1,000 live births; 2.5 per cent of the country's gross domestic product was spent on health care.

Defense Military service of 18 months is compulsory for males in Morocco. The army numbered about 175,000 men, the air force about 13,500, and the navy about 7,800 in 1996.

International Organizations Morocco is a member of the UN, the Arab League, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC).

History The history of the region comprising present-day Morocco has been shaped by the interaction of the original Berber population and the various foreign peoples who successively invaded the country.
The first of the foreign invaders well known to history were the Phoenicians, who in the 12th century BC established trading posts on the Mediterranean coast of the region. These colonies were later taken over and extended by the Carthaginians. The conquest of Carthage by the Roman Empire, in the 2nd century BC, led to Roman dominance of the Mediterranean coast of Africa. About AD 42 the northern portion of what is now Morocco was incorporated into the Roman Empire as the province of Mauretania Tingitana. In the Germanic invasions that attended the decline of the Roman Empire, the Vandals in 429 occupied Mauretania Tingitana. The Byzantine general Belisarius defeated the Vandals in 533 and established the rule of the Byzantine Empire in parts of the country.

Muslim Conquest Byzantine rule was ended by the Arabs, who invaded Morocco in 682 in the course of their drive to expand the power of Islam. Except for the Jews, the inhabitants of Morocco, both Christian and pagan, soon accepted the religion of their conquerors. Berber troops were used extensively by the Arabs in their subsequent subjugation of Spain.
The first Arab rulers of the whole of Morocco, the Idrisid dynasty, held power from 789 to 926. The Idrisids were succeeded by other dynasties, both Arab and Berber. Among the most notable were the dynasties of the Almoravids, from 1062 to 1147, and the Almohads, from 1147 to 1258. Under the latter, Morocco became the centre of an empire that embraced modern-day Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and large areas of Spain and Portugal.
The Almohad Empire began to disintegrate after the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, in which the Spanish defeated the Moroccans. By mid-century its power was gone. A period of disorder and almost incessant civil war between Berbers and Arabs followed. Rulers of various dynasties reigned briefly and ineffectually over parts of the country. In 1415 Portugal captured the port of Ceuta. This intrusion initiated a period of gradual extension of Portuguese and Spanish power over the Moroccan coastal region.
Morocco experienced a revival under the Saadians, known as the first Sharifian dynasty (1554-1660). The Moroccans inflicted a severe defeat on the Portuguese in 1578, and by the end of the 17th century they had regained control of most of their coastal cities. The reign (1579-1603) of Ahmed I al-Man-sur is regarded as the golden age of Morocco. The country benefited enormously from the influx of nearly a million Moors and Jews who were expelled from Spain after 1492. It was unified and relatively prosperous; its native arts and architecture flourished.
The Saadians were succeeded by the second Sharifian dynasty, who have ruled since 1660. This dynasty reached its peak in the reign of Ismail al-Hasani (reigned 1672-1727). Al-Hasani's reign was followed by a long period of disorder, which was punctuated with brief interludes of relative peace and prosperity.

European Dominance In the 18th and early 19th centuries pirates from Morocco and other so-called Barbary coast states of North Africa preyed on the shipping that plied the Mediterranean Sea. Because of the depredations of the Barbary pirates and because Morocco shared control of the Strait of Gibraltar with Spain, the country featured with increasing prominence in the diplomacy of the European maritime powers, particularly Spain, Great Britain, and France. Spain invaded Morocco in 1859-1860 and acquired Tetouan.
In April 1904, in return for receiving a free hand in Egypt from France, Great Britain recognized Morocco as a French sphere of interest. Later that year France and Spain divided Morocco into zones of influence, with Spain receiving the much smaller part as a sub-lessee of France. Imperial Germany soon disputed these arrangements, and a conference of major powers, including the United States, met in Algeciras, Spain, in January 1906 to conclude an agreement. The resultant Act of Algeciras guaranteed equality of economic rights for every nation in Morocco.
In July 1911 the Germans sent a gunboat to the Moroccan port city of Agadir, in a move designed to encourage native resistance to French dominance. This incident provoked French mobilization and brought Europe to the brink of war, but in later negotiations Germany agreed to a French protectorate over Morocco in return for French territorial concessions elsewhere in Africa.
In March 1912 the sultan recognized the protectorate. Later that year the French, under a revision of the 1904 convention with Spain, obtained a larger share of Moroccan territory.

Fight for Independence The Spanish experienced even greater difficulties in Spanish Morocco. Abd-el-Krim, a leader of Rif tribes, organized a revolt against Spanish rule in 1920. By 1924 he had driven the Spanish forces from most of their Moroccan territory. He then turned upon the French. France and Spain agreed in 1925 to cooperate against Abd-el-Krim. More than 200,000 troops under the French Marshal Henri Philippe Pétain were used in the campaign, which ended victoriously in 1926. The country was not fully pacified, however, until the end of 1934.
Following Germany's defeat of France in 1940, the collaborationist government of Vichy France allowed Morocco to support the German war effort. In November 1942 American troops landed and occupied Morocco. During the rest of World War II, the country was a major Allied supply base. Casablanca was the site of a meeting of the heads of government of the Allies in 1943.
In 1944 Moroccan nationalists formed the Istiqlal Party, which soon won the support of Sultan Muhammad V and the majority of Arabs. It was opposed by most of the Berber tribes, however. The French rejected the plea by the sultan in 1950 for self-government. The sultan was deposed in August 1953, but in October 1955 the French permitted him to return to the throne.

Unification The French recognized Moroccan independence in March 1956. In April the Spanish government recognized in principle the independence of Spanish Morocco and the unity of the sultanate, although it retained certain cities and territories. Tangier was incorporated into Morocco in October 1956. Ifni was returned to Morocco in January 1969.
Sultan Muhammad V assumed the title of King in August 1957. At his death in 1961, the throne passed to his son Hassan II. A royal charter was implemented by Hassan, whereby a constitutional monarchy was established on the approval by referendum of a constitution in December 1962. The nation's first general elections were held in 1963. In June 1965, however, the king temporarily suspended parliament and assumed full executive and legislative power, serving as his own prime minister for two years. Hassan gave strong support to the Arab cause in the 1967 Six-Day War with Israel and made subsequent attempts to secure Arab unity. Nevertheless, he was deemed too moderate by extremist elements, and attempts were made on his life in 1971 and 1972.

Saharan War During 1974-1975 Morocco exerted much pressure on Spain to relinquish the Spanish Sahara. When the Spanish left, in 1976, they ceded the northern two thirds of the colony to Morocco, while Mauritania received the southern third. This disposal of the phosphate-rich territory was disputed by the Polisario Front, a Saharan nationalist movement, which sought to bring about the establishment of the independent nation of Western Sahara. Although burdened by the ensuing guerrilla warfare, Morocco resolved to continue the fight alone after Mauritania decided to withdraw from the conflict in 1979.
Faced with mounting international opposition, King Hassan nevertheless committed additional troops and resources to the effort to protect the phosphate mines and major towns from Polisario harassment. In 1984 Morocco left the Organization of African Unity to protest against its seating of a Polisario delegation. Efforts by the UN to mediate the dispute continued throughout the 1980s and early 1990s; a 1988 peace plan collapsed over disagreement on terms for a referendum on Western Sahara's future.

The Gulf War and After Morocco sent troops in 1990 to protect Saudi Arabia against Iraq's troop build-up in Kuwait, but Moroccan forces had no direct role in the Gulf War. Western Saharan constituencies were included in the 1992 local elections, which followed King Hassan's promulgation of a new constitution, overwhelmingly approved by referendum in September; the 1993 legislative elections gave the greatest share of the poll to a coalition of the centre-right parties. Neither wing of the political spectrum proved able to form a government, and in November 1993 King Hassan appointed a Cabinet of technocrats and independents. He replaced this with a partially elected Cabinet in February 1995, including some representatives of the majority right-wing parties. In September 1996 a referendum approved the king's plans for a new legislative upper house, composed of indirectly elected representatives of local government and the professions, by over 99 per cent; outside observers expressed skepticism at the high figure, but opposition parties welcomed the result.
Legislative elections due to be held in April 1997 took place in November, with the Socialist Union of Popular Force winning 13.9 per cent of seats, followed closely by the Independence Party, with 13.2 per cent.
As Morocco produces 30 per cent of Europe's supply of cannabis, in 1996 a major campaign against drug smuggling was launched in response to foreign criticism. The campaign aroused opposition from importers and criticism from others concerned about human rights. While Islamic militant groups are illegal in Morocco, Islamic fundamentalism is on the increase, mainly as a reaction to the country's pro-Western stance.